Construction of CE Estimation Model in Rural Tourism Development

Rural tourism destinations are a diverse and open composite system composed of nature, society, and economy. In this system, the CE process includes two aspects: natural and human processes. Carbon sources are divided into natural and anthropogenic carbon sources. The natural carbon source of rural tourism refers to the process and activity of emitting CO₂ in the natural ecosystem of rural tourism [16]. The anthropogenic carbon source in rural tourism refers to the production of a large amount of CO₂ in various activities of rural tourism and agricultural production [17]. Fig. 1. shows the carbon source system of rural tourism destinations.

In Fig. 1., the natural carbon sources in rural tourism areas mainly include the green vegetation autotrophic respiration. It converts CO₂ in the atmosphere into plant carbon through plant photosynthesis, thereby affecting the CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere. Heterotrophic respiration in farmland soil refers to the absorption of CO₂ by plants in the farmland soil, while releasing CO₂ from the atmosphere into the soil. The carbon source of litter decomposition is the CO₂ released from the decomposition of plants and soil. Volatile carbon sources in rural water bodies refer to the absorption and conversion of CO₂ emitted by plants and water bodies into organic matter, thereby affecting the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere. In rural tourism areas, anthropogenic carbon sources primarily encompass three aspects: tourism carbon sources, agricultural carbon sources, and community carbon sources. Specifically, the consumption of carbon sources is predominantly associated with fossil energy usage in the tourism, catering, and accommodation sectors. Rural tourism destination carbon sink refers to the natural ecosystem elements and areas that can remove, absorb, and store atmospheric CO₂. In different natural ecosystems, there are differences in vegetation carbon absorption and soil carbon storage rates. Considering this and combined with the composition of terrestrial ecosystem carbon sink base, a carbon sink system for rural tourism destinations has been constructed. Fig. 2. shows the carbon sink system of rural tourism destinations.

In Fig. 2., the carbon sequestration system of rural tourism destinations comprises four key components, namely the rural agricultural system, rural forest land system, rural wetland system, and rural grassland system [18]. Among these, the CE from rural agricultural systems encompass both traditional and modern farming practices. Traditional agriculture relies on crop photosynthesis, while modern agriculture incorporates advanced techniques such as mechanization, fertilization, and irrigation to enhance crop yields. The rural forest land system encompasses both natural and artificial wetlands. Natural wetlands encompass lakes, swamps, rivers, ponds, and reservoirs, while artificial wetlands refer to marshes constructed on land, containing soil rich in plant nutrients. The primary carbon sources in wetlands are derived from swamps, lakes, rivers, vegetation, and soil in ponds and reservoirs. The CE in the rural grassland system originate from grassland vegetation and soil, which contribute significantly to carbon sequestration in rural areas, facilitating sustainable development. Fig. 3. illustrates the mechanism by which carbon sink resources impact rural tourism destinations.

Fig. 1.

Natural and man-made carbon sources in rural tourism destinations.

Fig. 2.

Carbon sink system of rural tourism destination.

In Fig. 3., the impact mechanisms of carbon sink resources in rural tourism destinations are primarily categorized into natural mechanisms and artificial mechanisms. The natural mechanism encompasses ecological processes that affect the carbon sink function of rural tourism destinations under various factors such as heightened carbon concentration, climate change, nitrogen deposition, elevated CO₂ concentration, and pollution. Climate change primarily pertains to the rise in global temperature and reduction in rainfall, leading to an elevation in atmospheric CO₂ concentration (specifically, an increase in CO₂ content in the global atmosphere). Pollution primarily denotes the release of air pollutants from rural tourism destinations. Nitrogen deposition refers to the substantial presence of nitrogen in the soil of tourist destinations, which can be assimilated by plants and stimulate plant growth. The human intervention mechanism primarily refers to alterations, interference, or management of land use/cover patterns in rural tourism destinations. To rehabilitate degraded rural ecosystems, it is imperative to implement effective management measures aimed at enhancing environmental quality, augmenting soil nutrients and air moisture, and increasing forest coverage.

The CE estimation adopts the anthropogenic CE estimation method in rural tourism areas to obtain the CE of the region. When establishing a CE prediction model for rural tourism, it is vital to comprehensively consider the main carbon sources such as tourism consumption, agricultural production consumption, and waste incineration [19]. Different evaluation methods can be used for different carbon sources to meet different needs. Under different modes and purposes of travel, there will also be significant differences in their CE. Equation (1) is used to construct the CE estimation expression for tourism links [20].

The GE_traffic in Equation (1) represents the CE of the tourist destination per unit time, and it is necessary to consider the CE of different modes of transportation simultaneously. This includes external transportation CE_External, central transportation CE_central, and internal transportation CE_inside in tourist attractions. The CE estimation of tourism accommodation only takes into account the CE generated by the energy consumption of various accommodation and services within the tourist attraction. These CEs include CE generated by energy consumption of household appliances such as housing lighting, television, and heating [21]. The calculation of CE from the accommodation sector is expressed as Equation (2).

Fig. 3.

Study on ecological services of carbon sink resources and their mechanism in rural tourism destinations.

In Equation (2), EQ_j represents the energy consumption of j types in the i-th store for accommodation. CF_j represents the conversion of j energy consumption into standard coal coefficient. CF_ce is the coefficient of CO₂ emissions from standard coal, with a value of 2.45. The estimation of CE from tourism and catering requires considering the various energy consumption used in catering, including traditional natural gas energy consumption, traditional coal energy consumption, and catering electricity consumption. The entire calculation of CE does not include the energy consumed during the transportation of raw materials. The energy consumption of catering needs to be obtained through on-site research to obtain relevant data. The CE of tourism and catering are similar to those of the accommodation sector, and their calculation expression is demonstrated as Equation (3) [22].

The CE estimation of scenic area management needs to consider the energy consumption in various aspects of the tourism management process. This includes environmental protection, scenic area maintenance, daily operation and management of scenic areas, and scenic area service management. The management work of the scenic area will ensure the maintenance of the daily work of the scenic area [23]. The CE in scenic area management mainly comes from two aspects: firstly, the office consumption of scenic area management places, and secondly, the commuting consumption of scenic area management personnel [24]. The calculation expression of scenic area management CE is Equation (4).

In Equation (4), CE_management represents the operating company’s energy CE, and the total emission management consists of commuting CE_office and CE_commuting. In addition, it is also necessary to consider the CE caused by the combustion of rural solid waste. Solid waste incineration will directly emit a large amount of CO₂, and its calculation expression is Equation (5) [25].

In Equation (5), CS_waste represents the total amount of solid waste emissions, and IW represents the total combustion amount of Class i solid waste. dm is the dry substance in Class i solid waste, and CCW is the carbon content in Class i solid waste. FCF represents the mineral carbon content in Class i solid waste, while EF represents the proportion of mineral carbon to total carbon in Class i solid waste. In the process of developing rural tourism, it is necessary to fully consider the factors of CE and carbon absorption. The natural space of rural tourism areas includes various types of ecological habitats. The ecological function of carbon sinks is closely related to the storage and absorption of carbon. In the calculation of carbon absorption in rural tourism, the construction of a rural carbon absorption model has been completed based on the estimation parameters and coefficient method of ecological carbon sinks. Equation (6) is the calculation of carbon absorption in rural tourism destinations.

CS in Equation (6) represents the total system carbon absorption of rural tourism at a certain point in time. CS_vg is the carbon absorption of ecological plants. CS_crop represents the carbon absorption of agricultural crops, and CS_water represents the carbon absorption of water wetlands. Rural ecological plants play a crucial role in maintaining the stability of ecosystems, and their photosynthesis can convert CO₂ in the soil into storable substances. The carbon absorption expression of rural ecological plants is Equation (7) [26].

In Equation (7), C_cg.i represents the carbon absorption coefficient of i plants. Area represents the plant area. Carbon sequestration in crops mainly refers to the absorption and utilization of photosynthesis by cash crop. Economic crops absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, which is stored and converted into the energy needed for plant growth. Equation (8) is the calculation process for the carbon absorption of crops [27].

In Equation (8), CS_crop.i represents the carbon absorption of i economic crops. Y_bio.i is the carbon absorption coefficient of i economic crops. Y_bio.i represents the economic output value achieved by i economic crops. In the process of carbon absorption in wetlands, the absorption and fixation of CO₂ by aquatic plants in wetland waters are mainly considered. Wetland water bodies include carbon absorption and carbon sequestration in dry and wet environments, as shown in Equation (9) [28].

In Equation (9), C_u–water represents the carbon sequestration rate of rivers and lakes. Cmrar refers to the carbon fixation rate of mudflat. A_water represents the total area of the river and lake. A_mud refers to the total area of mudflat. And A represents the single dry wet settlement area. C_sub represents the input coefficient of single dry wet deposition carbon.

The Construction of Carbon Compensation Mechanism in the Development of Rural Tourism

Ecological compensation is formulated based on a synthesis of various disciplines such as ecology and economics [29]. It explores diverse mechanisms for compensation across four key dimensions: planning, management, market, and technology. This undertaking primarily encompasses the identification of compensation beneficiaries, the establishment of compensation criteria, the determination of compensation methods and approaches, process administration, and the pricing of carbon in the market. Carbon compensation, a burgeoning area within ecological compensation research, follows a three-step process to attain carbon neutrality. Initially, CE is quantified, which then serves as the basis for formulating corresponding emission reduction strategies. Ultimately, the aim is to offset unavoidable CE through compensation [30]. Fig. 4. illustrates the framework of the carbon compensation mechanism.

In Fig. 4., firstly, carbon compensation is generally carried out according to the principle of “whoever emits pays, whoever absorbs receives compensation” [31]. Compensation can be divided into government compensation, individual compensation, enterprise compensation, land use compensation, and regional horizontal compensation based on different subjects. Secondly, the assessment criteria of carbon compensation can be in line with the opportunity cost method, market price method, carbon tax law, shadow price method and other methods to assess the cost of CE. Then the compensation amount for each party is determined in line with the evaluation results. Thirdly, China uses the opportunity cost method to determine the carbon compensation standard. Finally, based on carbon compensation, the ecological benefits of carbon compensation schemes are evaluated, providing suggestions and opinions for improving carbon compensation mechanisms. Fig. 5. shows the basic framework of carbon compensation mechanism and the rural tourism carbon compensation mechanism constructed on the ground of the characteristics of rural tourism.

In Fig. 5., in line with the characteristics of rural tourism, from the CE perspective of rural tourism, the sectors that generate negative externality are the main body of CE. For example, departments or activities that cause CE, such as transportation, accommodation, food and solid waste during tourism, as well as residents’ daily lives [32]. In contrast, carbon sink groups, such as water wetlands, forest land, farmland, grassland and other groups that absorb CO₂ and other greenhouse gases, that is, the sectors that generate positive externality are the main carbon sinks. The focus of carbon compensation lies in the social environmental effects ultimately generated by the CE behavior of various sectors of society. Due to the need to develop rural tourism, the CE behavior of various departments is bound to have an impact on the ecological environment. Generally speaking, the subject of ecological compensation is the beneficiary of ecological services, and the object is the provider of ecological services. Fig. 6. shows the composition of the subject and object of the rural tourism carbon compensation mechanism.

Fig. 4.

Framework construction of carbon compensation mechanism.

The subjects of carbon compensation in rural tourism are divided into three categories, one of which is the subject of CE in the tourism process [33]. In the course of delivering tourism services to visitors, the different divisions within rural tourism establishments generate a substantial volume of CE, thereby exerting an adverse influence on the ecological ecosystem. Consequently, it becomes imperative to shoulder the responsibility of environmental restoration and undertake carbon compensation measures. The second group comprises those who reap the benefits of ecological environment development [34]. As a result of the establishment and management of the ecological environment, the preservation of tourism resources has been ensured. The rural tourism sector can effectively exploit natural resources for economic gains, necessitating carbon compensation. The three entities involved include governmental bodies at various levels and pertinent departments [35], and in China, government compensation is mainly used. The development of rural tourism requires government support, and in compensation, some public goods or high CE companies require government intervention to ensure its smooth progress. There are four main types of carbon compensation objects for rural tourism, one is the group that contributes to the ecological environment [36]. Some groups, organizations, individuals, or enterprises that spontaneously contribute to carbon compensation need to be given appropriate rewards and compensation. The second is the victims who suffer losses due to ecological damage [37]. The third is the victim in the process of environmental governance. Victims need to be compensated to maintain their daily needs [38]. The fourth is the group that consciously reduces ecological damage [39]. The development of rural tourism has brought some opportunities to people. Some groups do not want to damage the ecology, but under survival pressure, they have to do so. Thus, to reduce CE, the government must subsidize them. The method of carbon compensation for rural tourism is listed in Fig. 7.

Fig. 5.

Framework of rural tourism carbon compensation mechanism.

Fig. 6.

Main and object components of rural tourism carbon compensation mechanism.

Fig. 7.

Carbon offsetting methods of rural tourism.

In Fig. 7, rural tourism carbon compensation usually includes government carbon compensation, enterprise carbon compensation, social carbon compensation, and individual carbon compensation [40]. In China, government carbon compensation plays a predominant role. It primarily involves employing reward and punishment mechanisms to investigate the CE of tourism-related enterprises and departments. Additionally, CE trading is utilized to effectively regulate the CE quota of enterprises, encouraging them to purchase CE rights and achieve independent emission reduction. Furthermore, carbon finance tools are employed, such as establishing a carbon foundation and imposing taxes on carbon-emitting entities [41]. By taxing high carbon-emitting enterprises, carbon compensation initiatives can be funded. Tourism-related enterprises can establish carbon compensation funds to incentivize tourists to participate in carbon compensation. This can be achieved by encouraging tourists to purchase lottery tickets and contribute to funds, thereby promoting their awareness of carbon reduction and aligning environmental benefits with their own interests. Social carbon compensation mainly refers to various non-governmental organizations that spontaneously form within society, often relying on donations as a means of compensation [42]. Non-governmental organizations can also provide low-interest loans to enterprises or individuals through micro-credit, offering them initial funds for engaging in carbon compensation activities and encouraging active participation. Individual carbon compensation can establish a symbiotic relationship between individuals and society, as well as production and consumption, through three methods: afforestation, carbon labeling, and individual donations, thus achieving the goal of carbon compensation to a certain extent [43]. Individual carbon compensation should be regulated more from a moral perspective, by strengthening publicity and education, improving the transparency of the use of carbon funds, and thus increasing the enthusiasm of individuals to participate in carbon compensation.

Empirical Result Analysis

The CE data of Songkou Town in Yongtai was obtained from relevant information from the local tourism bureau. The main modes of transportation for tourists to Songkou Town include high-speed trains, trains, cars, etc. According to relevant data, the average distance of external transportation, central transportation, and the proportion of people traveling to Songkou Town in 2022 were calculated, as shown in Table 1. [44-45].

In Table 1., the actual number of tourists received by Songkou Town in 2022 is 422,104. Among tourists traveling to Songkou Town, 51.05% of them use high-speed trains. Secondly, self-driving tours account for 35% of the total 98%. The main reason why most tourists choose high-speed trains for travel is that this mode of transportation costs less time and has a higher cost-effectiveness. And only during the transit process, tourists will consider cars. In addition, there are more tourists to Songkou Town within the province, accounting for 89.87%. Among them, Fuzhou has a significant number of tourists, accounting for 22.47% of the total number of people. Fig. 8. shows the CE

Fig. 8.

CE from tourism transportation in Songkou Town.

Carbon emission parameter(CO2/p·km) situation of tourism transportation in Songkou Town in 2022 [46-47].

From Fig. 8a)., among external means of transportation, the annual CE to Songkou Town by plane is the highest, at 4529.3 t. The annual CE through passenger cars is the lowest, at 128 t. The total annual CE of all external transportation for tourism in Songkou Town in 2022 is 7457 t. Among the central transportation vehicles in Fig. 8b)., the annual CE for taking passenger cars to Songkou Town is the highest, at 1062.7 t. The annual CE for charter cars through travel agencies is the lowest, at 165.5 t. The total central transportation CE of Songkou Town in 2022 is 2242.8 t. In summary, the actual total CE of tourism transportation in Songkou Town in 2022 is 9699.8 t. Table 2. shows the basic situation and per capita CE intensity of the tourism and accommodation industry in Songkou Town [48].

In Table 2., there are a total of 10 operating households for tourism accommodation, with 271 beds. The average occupancy rate of tourism accommodation in Songkou Town is 66.6%, with a total CE of approximately 60.96 t and a per capita CE intensity of 0.78 kg/visitor-night. Songkou Town is mainly composed of small restaurants and taverns, and the basic situation and CE intensity of its large tourism catering industry are listed in Table 3.

The number of large-scale restaurants in Songkou Town in Table 3. is 4, with 92 tables and a table occupancy rate of 82.25%. The average electricity consumption per household is 26798.35kWh, and the consumption of liquefied gas per household is 1000 kg, which is equivalent to 5007.8 kg of standard coal. The total CE of the large-scale tourism and catering industry in Songkou Town is 62898kg, with a one-time catering service CE intensity of 1.27. Table 4. shows the basic situation and CE intensity of the small-scale tourism and catering industry in Songkou Town [49].

The number of small catering establishments in Songkou Town in Table 4. is 6, with 31 tables and an occupancy rate of 84%. The average electricity consumption per household is 4640.01 kWh, and the consumption of liquefied gas per household is 370.83 kg, which is equivalent to 1331.1 kg of standard coal. The total CE of the large-scale tourism and catering industry in Songkou Town is 25078.5 kg, and the CE intensity of a single catering service is 1.37. Table 5. shows the CE of residents in Songkou Town [50].

According to Table 5., the household energy usage of residents in Songkou Town is 2792 Kwh of electricity, 42.28 kg of liquefied gas, and 132.2 kg of firewood, with corresponding proportions of 27.41%, 21.73%, and 50.86%, respectively. The total CE of residents in this town is 4,344,880.2 kg. Fig. 9. shows the composition and proportion of rural tourism CE in Songkou Town.

Among the CE sources of rural tourism in Songkou Town in Fig. 9a)., the highest CE is tourism transportation, which is 9700.1 t. The lowest CE for the management department is 11.455 t. The proportion of rural tourism, transportation, accommodation, catering, shopping and entertainment, garbage disposal, management departments, and residents’ living in Songkou Town to the total CE is 55.60%, 0.35%, 1.56%, 3.93%, 13.59%, 0.07%, and 24.91%, respectively. Taking into account the factors such as distance, price, and time consumption, five scenarios are set up in the experiment. They are the conversion of an airplane to a high-speed train, the conversion of a passenger car to a private car, the conversion of a private car to a high-speed train, and the conversion of a private car to a passenger car, and the private cars increasing the occupancy rate. The reduced CE situation is demonstrated in Table 6.

Fig. 9.

Composition and proportion of CE from rural tourism in Songkou Town.

In Table 6., when 20% of tourists switch from airplanes to high-speed trains, CO₂ emissions decrease by 10.54%. When 20% of tourists switch from self-driving to high-speed cars, their CO₂ emissions decrease by 3.94%. When 20% of tourists switch from self-driving to passenger cars, CO₂ emissions decrease by 5.20%. When the self-driving occupancy rate increases by 20%, the CO₂ emissions decrease by 11.78%. In summary, the public transportation system to tourist destinations must be strengthened to enable passengers to choose low-carbon transportation methods as much as possible. Meanwhile, it is necessary to increase the average occupancy rate of transportation vehicles, create advanced concepts of low-carbon travel, build a green tourism transportation system, and reduce CO₂ emissions.